Natural Law versus Utilitarian Law Free Essays

Abortion and Homosexuality, for many years, still remain one of the most crucial social and ethical issues of modern times. It has divided societies. Advocates and opponents continue to collide over debates, rallies, and violent confrontations trying to exert their rights to these practices. We will write a custom essay sample on Natural Law versus Utilitarian Law or any similar topic only for you Order Now Both sides have valid arguments that led to legal battles and state legislation. Abortion is legal in 54 countries while it is illegal in 97 countries. Approximately 46 million abortions are performed worldwide every year, averaging 126,000 a day. In the United States, 1,370,000 occur annually. Since its legalization in 1973, there are more than 40 million cases reported. Many women use abortion as birth control while others because of rape or incest. Women decide to abort in order to postpone childbearing, cannot afford a baby, too young, will disrupt education or career, risk to fetal health, and risk to maternal health. Each year almost 26 million women obtain legal abortions while 20 million others obtain it illegally in countries that prohibit the practice. Moral considerations in abortion include: Is the fetus a person? What stage of development does it become human? Does the pregnant woman have the right to decide whether she wants the baby or not? Not allowing a woman to end her unwanted pregnancy violates her human rights? Are laws controlling abortion violates privacy? Would abortion be allowed to women who are victims of rape or incest? On the other hand, homosexuals are well-known throughout history and now becoming a phenomenon these days. Their fashionable lifestyle is now acceptable. Recent studies show that the prevalence of homosexuality in adult males of Western societies ranges from 2% to 8%, indicating that a significant number of the population have homosexual tendencies. Homosexuals are now found in all walks of life, in all kinds of families, in many religions and races. Homosexuality is illegal in 80 countries, 42 of these outlaw male-to-male sex. The legal status of homosexuals varies. In some countries, homosexual acts are prosecuted under morality law or public indecency and even put to death. In 2001, Netherlands became the first country to legalize same-sex marriages followed by Belgium in 2003, Spain and Canada in 2005, and the US State of Massachusetts in 2004. Among the strongest issue against homosexuals is that they are obsessed with sex, having little self-control or morality. Their promiscuous living enables them to have multiple partners as many as 100, making them vulnerable to and carriers of sexually transmitted diseases. Homosexuals continue their struggle for recognition. They fight for equal rights to employment opportunity, better access to health and insurance, freedom to marry, legislation for child custody, and the repealing of laws that ban transvestitism and cross-dressing among others. Considering these scenarios, different views and laws come into play, for or against: The Natural Law versus the Utilitarian Law. Both sides are trying to justify the actions. Natural law uses the principle of Double Effect wherein a person may lawfully perform an action from which two effects will follow, one bad, the other good. This principle states that evil must never be willed or voluntary or used as an end or means to an end. To determine whether the action is right the act itself must be morally good or neutral, the motivation may not positively intend the bad effect but may permit it only to attain the good effect, the good effect must be desired to compensate for allowing the bad effect, and there must be serious reason to allow the evil effect. The Utilitarian, in contrast, uses the principle of Utility that such action is right or moral when it promotes happiness or pleasure, and decreased the unhappiness or pain of individuals affected by the action. This principle is commonly known as achieving the greatest good for the greatest number. The law believes that all individuals are equal when determining the consequences of any given action and decides which action to take, of all the possible actions, to do the right thing. Abortion and the Utilitarian Law. The central arguments of this law in favor of abortion is that the woman has the right to control her own body, that abortion is a just exercise of this right, and that the law should recognize the right of choice. Denial of this right encourages illegal abortion and causes psychological anguish for women, especially those who are victims of rape or incest. The fetus, according to this theory, only becomes a person when it is viable in 23 weeks. At this time, the fetus has no legal rights. The rights only belong to the woman who can decide if she wants the baby or not. Reproductive freedom is a basic right. Abortion is justified if done within the period when the fetus is not fully developed. In this case, abortion is only terminating the pregnancy, not killing a child. Under its guiding principle of maximizing total happiness, denying a woman to end her unwanted pregnancy will cause her unhappiness and increase her pain. In addition, the baby will inflict physical and psychological harm as well as affect the woman’s mental health. If she is forced to care for the child, it will be a burden because she is not ready for the responsibility. She will be distressful in the future. Along the process, the child may suffer. Unhappiness will rule the lives of both mother and child, and the people around them. This law also compares abortion to self-defense. That if the baby poses a threat to the life or health of the woman, abortion will be the best possible action to take out the threat. Abortion and the Natural Law. The central arguments of this law against abortion is the notion that human life begins at conception, that abortion is a deliberate act of killing the life in progress, and that the law must prohibit unjust violations of the right to live. Nature has provided women wombs to create life, eliminating life would be unnatural. The act of abortion is evil because its motivation is willful and pre-meditated in terminating an innocent being. Under this theory, undergoing an abortion procedure is not allowed. However, other medical procedures could be morally good if only to save the life of a mother even if it resulted in the unintended death of the unborn child. The death of the child is not intentional but allowed to happen as a by-product of the action. Good acts must not be accomplished by evil deeds nor evil must not become an element in achieving the good. Abortion should not be used for family planning or prevent birth defects. If during treatment of a deadly disease such as cancer, through chemotheraphy or hysterectomy, the unborn child dies. The death of the child is not a mean to cure the illness. If there is a choice in getting the good effect without the bad effect, then this must be taken. If the action will result in lesser good and greater evil, the evil will be considered accidental or incidental. If a woman aborts her child to avoid embarrassment or maintain a shapely figure, this is not a reason of unintentional death but a planned one. All possible acts must be pursued to preserve life, but during the course of action one life is lost, the act is permissible and acceptable. Homosexuality and the Utilitarian Law. Referring to its principle that such action is morally right if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, then homosexuality would be acceptable because homosexuals generate a lot of pleasure to a lot of people. As stated earlier, their practices allow them to experience various relationships with different partners. To this extent, homosexuality should be acceptable. This theory has three features on the issue: consequence, welfare, and sum-ranking. The act is moral if its consequences contribute to the happiness (welfare) of many people (sum-ranking). On this account there is no action that is neither right nor wrong. Homosexual acts are moral as long as they maximize happiness. All that matter is that their actions are right if it pleases everyone. The law also believes that homosexuality is a normal human condition not only brought about biologically or the environment but can affect early childhood. It covers every culture and age. Homosexuality and the Natural Law. In this theory, homosexuality is not acceptable because it simply does not conform in accordance with nature. A man and a woman are designed to complement each other in sex and marriage, to produce offspring and raise a family. Their bodies are intended for that purpose. Homosexuality defeats that purpose but only abuses the human body. Two men or two women cannot reproduce. Thus, it is considered unnatural and immoral because it destroys the essence of family life. Through adoption, gay couples may have the possibility to raise their own families. However, as a consequence, the children will grow up in an inappropriate living condition, bombarded by intrigues and unusual behavior of their so cold parents. Definitely, their way of thinking and behavior will likewise be influenced.   In this set up, the act imposes bad effects for the children. Conflicts may arise soon when the children reached the age of reason that perhaps will give way for separation and unhappiness. Legalizing homosexuality will affect the conduct and judgment of children as well as spread immorality. Its acts contradict all conditions of the double effect principle. There is no good effect, only evil effect. Homosexual act by itself is not good and its motivation is for self satisfaction not for the benefit of others. The gay ideology only reduces the human dignity. Their promiscuous acts not only create scandals that shook institutions like the church or government but give rise to a number of diseases that plague many nations. The practice of homosexuality presents lethal consequences to other people. As a result, the act results in a number of sexually transmitted diseases.   The Center for Disease Control cited that homosexuals make up 80% of all AIDS cases in America. People with same sex attraction are said to have personality problems and deserve to be treated. References Grisez, G.G. (1970). Toward A Consistent Natural Law: Ethics of Killing. (Reprinted). The American Journal of Jurisprudence. Vol. 15. [Electronic version]. Retrieve May 9, 2006, from http://faculty.msmary.edu/Conway/PHIL%20400x/Grisez%20Toward%20A%20Consistent.pdf#search=’the%20utilitarian%20law%20on%20abortion’ Alstad, D. Abortion and The Morality Wars: Taking The Moral Offensive. National Abortion Rights Action League, 1997. Retrieve May 9, 2006, from http://www.rit.org/editorials/abortion/moralwar.html Hinman, L.M. (2000). Contemporary Moral Issues: Diversity and Consensus. (2nd Ed.). Prentice Hall College Div; 1 edition (December 22, 1995). University of San Diego. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000 Smart, J. J. C., Williams, B. (1973). Utilitarianism : For and Against. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom. Finnis, J. (1980). (Natural Law and Natural Rights. Clarendon Law Series. Oxford University Press, USA (March 20, 1980). Ruse, M. (1993). Homosexuality: Right or Wrong? Free Inquiry. Volume: 13. Issue: 2. Spring 1993. Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism, Inc. How to cite Natural Law versus Utilitarian Law, Essay examples

Clinical Reasoning Cycle to Identify The Fall And Health Risk

Question: Discuss about the Clinical Reasoning Cycle to Identify The Fall And Health Risk Factors. Answer: Introduction: Clinical reasoning cycle or clinical judgment is the process used by nurses to collect cues of patients, process the clinical information, interpret the problem or patients condition, plan intervention, evaluate and reflect on the learning process. This process is important as it helps to identify the disease and health risk factors of patients and has a positive impact on patient outcomes. This process facilitates planning of appropriate intervention with support from best practice assessment tools and patient centered approach to care (Dalton et al. 2015). The report utilizes the clinical reasoning cycle process to identify the fall and health risk factors present in Leonard, a 65 year old man admitted to the hospital after falling at local shop. Based on this analysis, it discusses the best practice assessment tool used to deal with Leonard. Finally, the report highlights ways to ways to persons centered approach while providing care to Leonard. Identify Leonards falls and health risk factors using the clinical reasoning cycle Leonard, a 65 year old man came to the hospital after falling at a local shop. To analyse factors and health risk factors that lead to fall in the patient, the following steps is followed- Consider the patient situation- The case study of Leonard reveals he is an old patient admitted to the emergency department due to fall.Initial observation shows he has not sustained any fracture however his face and hip has been severely bruised. Collect information of patients- The result of initial clinical investigation shows that Leonard mainly has decompensated liver disease which occurs mainly because of deterioration in liver function of patients with cirhossis (Moreau et al. 2013). His presenting symptoms included dyspnea, lethargy, ascites and anorexia. He tends to be confused and disoriented with little attention to personal care. The past medical history of Leonardo revealed that he had alcoholic liver disease as he was heavy drinker consuming about 180g alcohol/day for years and his consumption for last month was 40g/ day which is above the normal limit of 20-25 g/day. Due to his alcohol dependence, other health complication is also observed in patient such as mental and behavioural disorder, limb oedema, urinary continence and regular falls (Rehm et al. 2013). Other health risk factor in patient includes industrial deafness, hypotension, anemia, decubitus ulcer on left leg and arthritis in the lower back. Process information- The diagnosis of decompensated liver disease in Leonard suggest that he is a heavy drinker because decompensated liver disease occurs only because of long-term excessive alcohol use in an individual. This is associated with symptoms of ascites (fluid in the belly), jaundice and confusion in patients (Mankal et al. 2015). Hence, the presenting symptoms of jaundice and ascites was seen in Leonard due to decompensated liver disease. Identify problem/s issues- After analysing the presenting symptoms and health related risk factor in Leonardo, it is understood that decompensated liver disease is a major health issue for patient. This creates risk of fall in patients and he needs immediate support to manage his daily living. Secondly considering his age and his deteriorating health condition, continous family support was essential for him. However, his wife has died and he has no children. His two sisters cannot be present by him during night, hence community support is extremely essential to manage him at home. Another issue affecting the health and well being of Leonardo is that his personal car has declined due to disoriented symptoms in patients. This has mainly occurred because of increase alcohol dependence which ahs affected his mental and behavioural condition. Hence, nursing support is also needed in this area to provide relief to patients. Establish goals- Considering the health condition of Leonardo, the main nursing goal is to reduce his risk of fall and decrease the symptoms of alcohol related disease. Take action- The main action needed to improve health of Leonardo is- To treat his deteriorating symptoms caused due to decompensated liver disease. To assess fall risk in patient and provide necessary support To assess his behavioural and mental disorder and address them To enhance his motor skills and meet nutritional needs. To address his disorientation and problem in planning task. Evaluate outcomes- Positive outcome will be identified by means of improvement in his overall symptoms. Reflect on new learning- Based on complication and issues faced in the process of planning care, nurse can reflect and learn new ways to improve nursing practice. Best practice assessment tool in relation to the case Leonardo who has been diagnosed with decompensated liver disease due to excessive alcohol use is suffering from mental and behavioural disorder. Due to his confused behavior and disorientation, it will be necessary for nurse to assess his mental status. The best practice tool for the assessment of mental status is the Mini Mental state Examination tool. It is an effective, reliable and most wide used screening tool used to assess the cognitive impairment particularly in older adults. This is necessary for Leonardo as he is a 65 year old cognitively impaired adult with past alcohol history. It would help to predict cognitive changes in patient and plan interventions accordingly. It mainly evaluates and assess seven areas of cognitive functioning and accepted sensitivity of the tool is high. The score obtained from the test will help to identify the impairment in executive functioning, abstract reasoning and visual perception of Leonardo (Baek et al. 2016). Hence, based on this score, adequate interventions can be determined for Leonardo. Leonardo has motor planning difficulties and his disorientation is a risk factor for fall. Fall can have a severe effect on Leonardo at such age. As he also needs support during mobilisation, it is necessary for nurse to assess his risk of fall on a regular basis. This can be done by means of Heindrich II Fall Risk Model which is an efficient tool to determine the risk for fall based on gender, mental and emotional status, symptoms of dizziness, medication effect and other risk factors (Zhang et al. 2015). The fall risk assessment by means of this tool is important in older adults like Leonardo because fall among older adults can occur due to multifactorial etiology like chronic illness, medication and other effect. In Leonardos case, this is necessary due to his past history of alcohol use, his present condition of decompensatory lung disease, disorientation and poor motor planning. The validity and reliability of the tool has been shown from large case control study in acute care f acility. The tool has sensitivity of 74.9% and specificity of 73.9% (Hendrich 2017). By this means of assessment, treatment of Leonardo can be aligned to reduce present risk factors of fall. Leonardo has been found to be anorexic due to which he has also been referred to a dietician. Nurse can use the Subjective Global Assessment tool to evaluate the nutritional status in patients during the treatment process. This is done by gathering information about the food intake, gastrointesitinal symptoms, weight changes and physical examination in patients by analysing subcutaneous fat, edema, muscular atrophy and ascites. However this tool is not reliable for cirrhotic patients due to changes in ascites and edema. Hence, anthropometric measurement can be used to evaluate nutritional status. Tricep skinfold and mid-arm muscle circumference also helps to evaluate nutritional status (Romeiro and Augusti 2015). Person centred approach to support Leonards right and follow professional obligations In relation to the case scenario of Leonardo, an old adult with multiple chronic condition, it is necessary to provide holistic care by focusing on the immediate clinical needs of patient as well as his basic right and dignity in care. Patient-centred approach will be important in providing treatment to Leonardo because it is a provision for holistic care which involves the patient in the care process to get the best outcome (Kitson et al. 2013). Therefore, as part of professional obligation, the main priority of nurse will be to manage nutritional imbalance in patient, stabilize fluid volume and vital signs within the normal change and administer appropriate medication to control edema and ascites (Runyon 2013). Apart from pharmacological and nursing intervention, Leonardos care will be done by effective interaction with patients to know their issues or attitude towards treatment. Based on their consent, treatment should be planned. This will keep the patient motivated and promote their involvement in care process too. Patients preference should always be kept in mind and they should be motivated to changes their habit and lifestyle (Osborn et al. 2014). By this approach, Leonardo may pay attention to his personal care needs. As part of delivery of nursing care, nurse will respect the value of patient and take account of his needs. Secondly, good communication will be needed to educate patients regarding self-care and moving with assistive device. This will ensure continuity within the service and establishment of therapeutic relation with patients (Starfield 2017). Conclusion The essay summarized the importance of clinical reasoning cycle, best practice assessment tool and patient centred approach to care by means of the analysis of the case study of Leonardo. This gave practical example regarding how patients risk factors can be analysed and processed to plan nursing intervention. Secondly, explanation regarding the best assessment tool for Leonardo suggests the importance of appropriate tool in examining physical and mental status of patients. On the other hand, patient centred approach helps in practicing in accordance with professional obligation and patients right during the care process. References Baek, M.J., Kim, K., Park, Y.H. and Kim, S., 2016. The Validity and Reliability of the Mini-Mental State Examination-2 for Detecting Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimers Disease in a Korean Population.PloS one,11(9), p.e0163792. Dalton, L., Gee, T. and Levett-Jones, T., 2015. Using clinical reasoning and simulation-based education to'flip'the Enrolled Nurse curriculum.Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The,33(2), p.29. Hendrich, A. 2017.Fall Risk Assessment for Older Adults: The Hendrich II Fall Risk Model. [online] Available at: https://consultgeri.org/try-this/general-assessment/issue-8.pdf [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017]. Kitson, A., Marshall, A., Bassett, K. and Zeitz, K., 2013. What are the core elements of patient?centred care? A narrative review and synthesis of the literature from health policy, medicine and nursing.Journal of advanced nursing,69(1), pp.4-15. Mankal, P.K., Abed, J., Aristy, J.D., Munot, K., Suneja, U., Engelson, E.S. and Kotler, D.P., 2015. Relative effects of heavy alcohol use and Hepatitis C in decompensated chronic liver disease in a hospital inpatient population.The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse,41(2), pp.177-182. Moreau, R., Jalan, R., Gines, P., Pavesi, M., Angeli, P., Cordoba, J., Durand, F., Gustot, T., Saliba, F., Domenicali, M. and Gerbes, A., 2013. Acute-on-chronic liver failure is a distinct syndrome that develops in patients with acute decompensation of cirrhosis.Gastroenterology,144(7), pp.1426-1437. Osborn, R., Moulds, D., Squires, D., Doty, M.M. and Anderson, C., 2014. International survey of older adults finds shortcomings in access, coordination, and patient-centered care.Health Affairs,33(12), pp.2247-2255. Rehm, J., Samokhvalov, A.V. and Shield, K.D., 2013. Global burden of alcoholic liver diseases.Journal of hepatology,59(1), pp.160-168. Romeiro, F.G. and Augusti, L., 2015. Nutritional assessment in cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy.World journal of hepatology,7(30), p.2940. Runyon, B.A., 2013. Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Practice Guideline management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis 2012.Hepatology,57(4), pp.1651-1653. Starfield, B., 2017. Is patient-centered care the same as person-focused care?.Issues,2016. Zhang, C., Wu, X., Lin, S., Jia, Z. and Cao, J., 2015. Evaluation of reliability and validity of the Hendrich II Fall Risk Model in a Chinese hospital population.PloS one,10(11), p.e0142395.

The Present Moment Is Always Where You Are free essay sample

To a large degree, the measure of our peace of mind is determined by how much we are able to live in the present moment. Irrespective of what happened yesterday or last year, and what may or may not happen tomorrow, the present moment is where you are always. Without question, many of us have mastered the neurotic art of spending much of our lives worrying about a variety of things all at once. We allow past problems and future concerns to dominate our present moments, so much so that we end up anxious, frustrated, depressed, and hopeless. On the flip side, we also postpone ourgratification, our stated priorities, and our happiness, often convincing ourselves that someday will be better than today. Unfortunately, the same mental dynamics that tell us to look toward the future will only repeat themselves so that someday never actually arrives. John Lennon once said, Life is whats happening while were busy making other plans. We will write a custom essay sample on The Present Moment Is Always Where You Are or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When were busy making other plans, our children are busy growing up, the people we love are moving away and dying, our bodies are getting out of shape, and our dreams are slipping away. In short, we miss out on life. Many people live as if life were a dress rehearsal for some later date. It isnt. In fact, no one has a guarantee that he or she will be here tomorrow. Now is the only time we have, and the only time that we have any control over. When our attention is in the present moment, we push fear from our minds. Fear is the concern over events that might happen in the future we wont have enough money, our children will get into trouble, we will get old and die, whatever. To combat fear, the best strategy is to learn to bring your attention back to the present. Mark Twain said, I have been through some terrible things in my life, some of which actually happened. I dont think I can say it any better. Practice keeping your attention on the here and now. Your efforts will pay great dividends.

USS Kentucky (BB-66) in World War II

USS Kentucky (BB-66) in World War II USS Kentucky (BB-66) was an unfinished battleship that was started during World War II (1939-1945). Originally intended to be the second ship of the Montana-class of battleship, Kentucky was re-ordered in 1940 as the sixth and final ship of the US Navys Iowa-class of battleships. As construction moved forward, the US Navy found that it had a greater need for aircraft carriers than battleships. This led to designs to convert Kentucky into a carrier. These plans proved impractical and work resumed on the battleship but at a slow pace. Still incomplete at the end of the war, the US Navy then considered a variety of projects for converting Kentucky into a guided-missile battleship. These also proved fruitless and in 1958 the ship was sold for scrap.      A New Design In early 1938, work began on a new battleship type at the request of US Navy General Board chief Admiral Thomas C. Hart. First seen  as a larger version of the earlier  South Dakota-class, the new battleships were to carry twelve 16 guns or nine 18 guns. As the design evolved, the armament changed to nine 16 guns. In addition, the class anti-aircraft complement underwent several alterations  with the majority of its 1.1 weapons being replaced with 20 mm and 40 mm guns. Funding for the new ships came in May with the passage of the Naval Act of 1938. Dubbed the  Iowa-class, building  of the lead ship,  USS  Iowa  (BB-61), was assigned to the New York Navy Yard. Laid down in 1940,  Iowa  was to be the first of four battleships in the class. Fast Battleships Though hull numbers BB-65 and BB-66 were originally intended to be the first two ships of the new, larger  Montana-class, the approval of the Two Ocean Navy Act in July 1940 saw them re-designated as two additional  Iowa-class  battleships named USS  Illinois  and USS  Kentucky  respectively. As fast battleships, their 33-knot speed would permit them to serve as escorts for the new  Essex-class  carriers that were joining the fleet. Unlike the preceding  Iowa-class ships (Iowa,  New Jersey,  Missouri, and  Wisconsin),  Illinois  and  Kentucky  were to utilize all-welded construction which reduced weight while enhancing hull strength. Some conversation was also had as to whether to retain the heavy armor arrangement initially planned for the  Montana-class. Though this would have improved the battleships protection, it would also have greatly lengthened construction time.   As a result, standard  Iowa-class armor was ordered.   Ã‚   USS Kentucky(BB-66) - Overview Nation:  United StatesType:  BattleshipShipyard:  Norfolk Naval ShipyardLaid Down:  March 7, 1942Fate:  Scrapped, October 31, 1958 Specifications (Planned) Displacement:  45,000 tonsLength:  887.2 ft.Beam:  108 ft., 2 in.Draft:  28.9  ft.Speed:  33  knotsComplement:  2,788 (Planned) Guns 9 Ãâ€" 16 in./50 cal Mark 7 guns20 Ãâ€" 5 in./38 cal Mark 12 guns80 Ãâ€" 40 mm/56 cal anti-aircraft guns49 Ãâ€" 20 mm/70 cal anti-aircraft cannons Construction The second ship to carry the name USS Kentucky, the first being the Kearsarge-class USS Kentucky (BB-6) commissioned in 1900, BB-65 was laid down at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on March 7, 1942.   Following the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway, the US Navy recognized that the need for additional aircraft carriers and other vessels superseded that for more battleships. As a result, construction of Kentucky was halted and on June 10, 1942, the bottom section of the battleship was launched to make room for Landing Ship, Tank (LST) construction. The next two years saw designers explore options for converting Illinois and Kentucky into carriers. The finalized conversion plan would have resulted in two carriers similar in appearance to the Essex-class. In addition to their air wings, they would have carried twelve 5 guns in four twin and four single mounts. Reviewing these plans, it was soon found that the converted battleships aircraft capacity would be less than the Essex-class and that the construction process would take longer than building a new carrier from scratch. As a result, it was decided to complete both vessels as battleships but very low priority was given to their construction.   Moved back to the slipway on December 6, 1944, construction of  Kentucky slowly resumed through 1945. With the end of the war, discussion ensued regarding completing the vessel as an anti-aircraft battleship. This led to work halting in August 1946.   Two years later, construction again moved forward though using the original plans. On January 20, 1950,  work ceased and Kentucky was moved from its dry dock to make space for repair work on Missouri.    Plans, But No Action Moved to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Kentucky, which had been completed to its main deck, served as a supply hulk for the reserve fleet from 1950 to 1958. During this period, several plans were advanced with the idea of converting the vessel into a guided missile battleship. These moved forward and in 1954 Kentucky was renumbered from BB-66 to BBG-1. Despite this, the program was cancelled two years later. Another missile option called for the mounting of two Polaris ballistic missile launchers in the ship.   As in the past, nothing came from these plans. In 1956, after Wisconsin suffered a collision with the destroyers USS Eaton, Kentuckys bow was removed and used to repair the other battleship. Though Kentucky Congressman William H. Natcher attempted to block the sale of Kentucky, the US Navy elected to strike it from the Naval Vessel Register on June 9, 1958. That October, the hulk was sold to the Boston Metals Company of Baltimore and scrapped. Prior to disposal, its turbines were removed and used aboard the fast combat support ships USS Sacramento and USS Camden.

International Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

International Business - Assignment Example The World Trade Organization (WTO) is a post-war establishment, which was primarily set up as an attempt to liberalize world trade. Prior to this, trade settlements were conducted by International Trade Organization (ITO) and then by GATT. The end of Uruguay Round in 1994 led to establishment of WTO and this was a major departure from GATT on two main grounds. The first was inclusion of better dispute settlement measure in order to promote international cooperation and the second was inclusion of agriculture and services in the agreements to mainly promote progress of the developing countries. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the role of WTO in promoting economic development among nations. The system operates in the gamut of multilateral trade agreements to contribute to economic development and employment for all its member nations. The organization has its headquarters in Geneva with 159 member countries. China was one of the last countries to have joined WTO, which had significant impacts on the entire global trade (Faizel, 2005). One of the primary focus of WTO since its inception has been the promotion of free and fair trade through multilateral negotiations. The WTO involves all its member countries in the decision making process to ensure that outcomes from the agreements are fair for all. The economic rationale behind this idea is that international trade has a major role in alleviation of poverty. The WTO has realized that least-developed countries are the most vulnerable ones and therefore, commits to increase their participation in the multilateral trading system, thereby assigning equal importance to these countries (Klug, 2006). The task undertaken by WTO is a very complex one because its member countries have different political, legal and economical status. This means that developed countries are in a better position

Thesis and Content Outline about Art in south Africa Research Paper

Thesis and Content Outline about Art in south Africa - Research Paper Example A debate had been disclosed. In the coming years, there would be an extension amongst anti-apartheid forces, that there existed immense power in educational resistance. Therefore, whites planned an extensive marginalization of black ability, forcing upper echelons of the world art to exist (Peffer 43). 2. The use of sculptures, banners, dramatic sketches, poems, murals and t-shirts to express their vision resistance. Posters were everywhere painted black to mourn the dead, decorated houses to increase their villages, sculptures representing chairs. It was an art rooted in battle for liberation, extraordinarily rich, in opposition. 1. The whites’ schools restricted the black artists from their schools in priority to still life, oil painting, drawing from life and landscape studies. Whites were cautious in their arts, claiming they possess European convention naturalism â€Å"according to Skotnes†. Blacks were not allowed in theatres, cinemas or art museums through a separate part of amenities. 2. The art is set in commercial galleries and call the country. The works have been organized into pictorial formatted magazines, showcased in various museums in the world â€Å"New African Art Magazine for optima† which made it to centers of the art world, Paris (Williamson 14). In conclusion, the art of the world has a substantial contribution, which defines several aspects in distinct cultures. While some people set great reputations, others never get the opportunity because they do not master institutions and defining rules of ‘art’. Influential players within the art world include criticism, art history and art

Analysis Of A Linear Accelerator

Analysis Of A Linear Accelerator Nowadays patient with cancer are treated by radiation, surgery, chemotherapy or with a combination of these options. The radiotherapy treatment unit used to deliver radiation to cancerous cells and tissues is the linear accelerator, also known as linac. The linear accelerator has been defined by Khan F. M. (2003) as a device that uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons, to high energies through a linear tube. The electron beam itself can be used for treating superficial toumors, or it can strike a target to produce x-rays for treating deep-seated toumors. The energy used for the radiotherapy treatment of deep situated tissues varies from 6-15 MV (photons) and the treatment of superficial toumors (less than 5cm deep) is between 6-20MeV. (Khan, 2003) The purpose of this essay is to describe a linear accelerator, analyse its components in the stand and the gantry of the linac, and explain the principles of operation and then discuss why it is best situated to the task for which it was designed. Some advantages and disadvantages of the linac will also be included in the discussion part of the essay. Main body: Figure 1:http://www.cerebromente.org.br/ As you can see from the schematic picture above, the major components of a linac are: Klystron: source of microwave power Electron gun: source of electrons. Waveguide (feed and accelerating waveguide): microwaves travel through the feed waveguide and then to the accelerating waveguide, where electrons are accelerated from the electron gun. Circulator: a device that prevents microwaves of being reflected back from the accelerator. Cooling water system: cools the components of the linac. Bending magnet: A bending magnet is used to change the direction of the accelerated electron beam from horizontal to vertical. (Hendee et al, 2005) X-ray target: electrons hit the target and produce x-rays. Flattening filter: even out the intensity of the beam. Ionisation chambers: they control the dose leaving the head of the linac. Beam collimation: shape the radiation beam to a certain size Klystron: There are two types of microwave power. The klystron and the magnetron. Magnetrons are used for lower energy linacs. In the high energy linear accelerator klystron is used. All modern linacs have klystrons. Both klystron and magnetron are special types of evacuated tubes that are used to produce microwave power to accelerate electrons. (Karzmark and Morton, 1998). The tube requires a low-power radiofrequency oscillator to supply radiofrequency power to the first cavity called the buncher. (Hendee et al, 2005) In the bunching cavity, electrons produced from the electron gun, are bunched together to regulate their speed. The microwave frequency is thousands times higher than ordinary radio wave frequency. For a linac to work, the microwave frequency needed is 3 billion cycles per second. (3000MHz) (Karzmark and Morton, 1998) Electron gun: The electron gun is part of the klystron. Here, electrons are produced and then accelerated to radiofrequency cavities. The source of electrons is a directly heated filament made from tungsten, which will release electrons by thermionic emission. (Bomford, 2003) Tungsten is used because it is a good thermionic emitter with high atomic number, providing a good source of electrons. Klystrons usually have 3-5 cavities, used to bunch electrons together and increase microwave power amplification. Waveguide: There are two different types of waveguides used in linacs. The first is the feed waveguide and the second is the accelerating waveguide. The first one connects the klystron to the main part of the linac. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is used in the feed waveguide, to stop the arcing of electrons, caused by the microwaves that create strong electric fields. A circulator is placed in the waveguide system, to prevent microwaves being reflected back. Microwaves travel then to the accelerating waveguide. The accelerator guide of a linac requires a high vacuum to prevent power loss and electrical arcing, caused by interactions of electrons with gas molecules.(Cook, 1998)The acceleration of electrons takes place here. The accelerator waveguide bunch and accelerate the electrons with the microwaves. Electrons travel with a high velocity to almost the speed of light. (98% of speed of light) Microwaves travel to the speed of light, so irises are used to slow them down, so that electrons can keep up with the microwaves and be accelerated. There are two types of accelerator waveguide: the travelling and the standing waveguide. The difference between the standing and the travelling wave accelerators is the design of the accelerator waveguide. In the travelling wave accelerator, electrons travel towards the machine and microwaves are absorbed, but in the standing wave accelerator microwaves are reflected back upon themselves. The standing wave accelerator is the main type used in medical linear accelerators. Bending magnet: The electron beam leaving from the accelerator waveguide continues through the bending magnet. This is used to change the direction of the electron beam, to exit through the treatment head. The bending magnet deflects the beam in a loop of 270o, or 90o. The most common degree of bending magnet used in linacs is the 270o achromatic magnet. The important property of this magnet is that the electrons are brought together despite the difference in energies. They are brought back together to the same position, angle, and beam cross section at the target, as they were when they left the accelerator waveguide. X-rays target: The target is made of tungsten because of its high atomic number. When electrons, with their high speed, hit the target, made up from a high atomic number material, they undergo rapid deceleration. This sudden loss of energy results in the formation of x-rays and photons. To maximise the X-ray beam intensity, the transmission target will be thick enough to stop all the electrons bombarding it but thin enough to minimise the self absorption.( Bomford, 2003) In order to switch from photon to electron therapy, the target is removed to allow the electron stream to continue into the head of the machine. Flattening filter: In order to make the beam intensity uniform across the field a flattening filter is used. It is usually made of lead, although tungsten, uranium, steel, aluminium, or a combination has also been used or suggested. The flattening filter absorbs more photons from the centre of the beam and fewer from the periphery of the beam. Ionisation chambers: Ionisation champers measure the amount of radiation leaving the machine, quantified in units Monitor units. Every linac has two ionisation chambers for safety reasons. The ionisation is a round, flat structure, filled with gas, divided into a number of segments, where each segment contains electrodes. When radiation passes through the gas, it is then ionised creating a high charged density that is controlled by the electrodes. The treatment terminates when the readings from the electrodes have reached a pre-set M.U value. Collimation: A primary collimator limits the maximum field size for x-ray therapy (40 x 40cm). It ensures that x-rays leaving the target leave in a forward direction in order to minimise radiation leakage through the head. The treatment field size is defined by the secondary collimator. This collimator reduces the transmission penumbra, since radiation must travel through the entire collimator thickness. It consists of four thick metal blocks, called jaws. There are two pairs of jaws, upper and lower jaws. With the use of asymmetric jaws, by moving each jaw individually, asymmetric field sizes can be produced. Half beam blocking can also be enabling. Different intensity patterns can be produced, from the standard flat beam profile, by moving during treatment. Multi-leaf collimators are finger like projections, 1cm thick. These fingers like projections move independently in order to form the field shape more closely to the shape of the planning target volume. By using MLCs, less radiation is given to normal tissues. Discussion: From the introduction of this essay, the definition of the linac was given. A linac is a high voltage machine, used for the treatment of cancerous cells and tissues. With the structure of a linac this is achieved. By radiating cancerous tissues, with daily radiation treatment, cancerous tissues can be destroyed and then replaced by normal tissues. Every component in the linac is carefully selected for the function for which it is designed. First of all, the klystron is used to produce microwaves, because it is better than a magnetron that is used for lower energy linear accelerators. Because linear accelerators have higher energy beam, klystron are used for production of x-rays. Continuing to the electron gun, tungsten wire or filament is used, because of its high melting point, high atomic number, and it is ductile. With this features tungsten is a good thermionic emitter, is a good source of electrons and can be easily shaped into spiral, in order to create a larger surface area for the electrons to be emitted. In the feed waveguide Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is placed with the intention of stopping the arcing of electrons. At the end of the waveguide a circulator is placed so as microwaves cannot be reflected back. As we move on to the accelerating waveguide, and the standing wave accelerator used in linacs, we can see why the standing wave accelerator is used. The backward travelling wave interferes with the forward travelling wave, alternatively constructively and destructively. The resulting standing wave has a magnitude of approximately double that of the travelling wave, and the peak intensity travels along the waveguide at the phase velocity of the travelling wave.(Knapp et al, 1968) Following the waveguide is the bending magnet. Here we have the achromatic magnet where its main task is to change the direction of the electrons, but more important to bring the electrons together despite the difference in energies. A flattening filter is used to make the beam even from the central axis to its peripheral edges, to have homogenous distribution of the dose. Ionisation chambers are essential in a linac. They monitor the dose leaving the treatment head, so that the linear accelerator knows when to end the treatment. Collimation in a linear accelerator is necessary. Without the primary and secondary radiation a linac wouldnt be as suitable for the task for which it was designed. The field size and shape is vital in order to radiate only the cancerous tissues and not normal tissues. Nowadays with the advances of technology and the use not only of MLCs, but also IMRT and IGRT, survival rates of cancer have increased. Last but not least, a linear accelerator can treat a patient with different energy modalities. By removing the target, the electron stream can continue into the head of the machine and then be used for the treatment of superficial toumors. By leaving the target, photons are produced to treat deep-situated toumors. Nowadays most linacs have virtual wedges, compared to some decades ago, where there where only manual wedges. Now radiographers with the use of virtual wedges dont have to concern about manual handling, as they dont have to do anything. I believe that linear accelerators are not perfect. Linacs are extremely expensive to buy, so poor countries dont have the opportunity to treat their patients from cancer. It is hard to keep up with the advances of technology, as everything is very expensive to buy, and only wealthy countries can buy the latest equipment. A disadvantage of switching from photon to electron modalities is that applicators and blocks are used to direct the electrons and shape the beam. Applicators are very heavy. Blocks are made of lead which may cause lead poisoning if they are not handled with care. The only disadvantage with MLCs is that when conforming the beam shape to the PTV, some radiation will be leaking, even when using the tongue and groove effect. Last but not least the linacs to work efficiently they need daily quality assurance tests and maintenance from physicists. Conclusion: Linear accelerator is the main treatment unit used for the treatment of abnormal tissues. With its precise position of the beam, shaped differently for every patient individually, it certainly is the best machine for the treatment of cancer. A linac uses microwaves to accelerate electrons and then hit the target where x-rays are produced. This x-rays are collected and then form the shape of the beam. Nowadays with the rapid advances of technology, linacs in a few years time will be even more efficient than today. Definitely linear accelerators are best suited for the task for which they were designed. All the components of a linear accelerator are carefully selected for its needs. From the smallest to the bigger parts of the linac, are designed for the best outcome. References: BOMFORD, C.K., 2003. Megavoltage beam generators. In: C.K BOMFORD and I.H KUNKLER, ed. Walter and Millers Textbook of Radiotherapy. London: Churchill Livingstone, Pages 162-183. COOK, M., 1998. X-Ray Production. In: A. DUXBURY and P. CHERRY, ed. Practical Radiotherapy Physics and Equipment. London: GMM, Pages 21-26. HENDEE W. R., IBBOTT G. S. and HENDEE E. G., 2005. Radiation Therapy Physics. 3rd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Liss. KARZMARK, C.J and MORTON, R., 1998. A Primer on Theory and Operation of Linear Accelerators in Radiotherapy. 2nd ed. Madison, Wisconsin: Medical Physics Publishing. KHAN M.F., 2003.The Physics of Radiation Therapy.3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. KNAPP, E. A., KNAPP, B. C. and POTTER I. M., 1968. Standing Wave High Energy Linear Accelerator Structures. In: HENDEE W. R., IBBOTT G. S. and HENDEE E. G., 2005. Radiation Therapy Physics. 3rd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Liss.